Chemistry

Carbon forms the basis of millions of compounds, from the graphite in your pencil to the sugar in your food. Its ability to bond in countless ways makes it unmatched in chemistry. In this study guide, we’ll explore carbon’s atomic structure, carbon allotropes like diamond and graphite, and how it forms bonds in organic and …

Water, known chemically as $H_2O$, is an example of a molecule—a combination of atoms bonded to form a stable unit. Molecules are found everywhere—from the oxygen ($O_2$) in the atmosphere to the glucose ($C_6H_{12}O_6$) that fuels our cells—making them central to chemistry and life itself. We’ll start by looking at what a molecule is and …

A substitution is a chemical reaction that occurs when one atom or group in a molecule is swapped with another. Substitutions help create medicines, polymers, and other compounds we use daily. Certain antibiotics are made by using substitution reactions to adjust chemical structures. In this online textbook, you’ll learn about the main types of substitution—nucleophilic, …

Did you know that aldehydes are responsible for the distinctive smell of almonds? They are also preservatives found in many products. Due to their characteristic structure and reactivity, aldehydes such as acetic aldehyde and formaldehyde are used in flavourings, fragrances and even in important biological cycles. Our study guide presents what makes aldehydes unique, including …

Esters are everywhere—from the fruity aroma of bananas to the chemical structure of everyday plastics. As part of organic chemistry, esters form through simple reactions between acids and alcohols, making them key compounds in labs and everyday products. Our study guide will explore ester structure, esterification, key reactions, ester bonds, and how to name esters …

Did you know ketones are in nail polish remover? You can also find ketones in fruits such as raspberries, where they carry an intoxicating smell and taste. Acetone, the main ingredient in nail polish remover, is the simplest ketone. Ketones are found in many everyday products, such as solvents, perfumes, and polymers. They are also …

If you’ve ever smelled vinegar or rancid butter, you’ve already encountered carboxylic acids. Acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste, and butyric acid, responsible for the smell of rancid butter, are both common examples. Carboxylic acids are characterized by a carboxyl group (-COOH), which influences their behavior in chemical reactions. Let’s explore what makes …

Think about how vegetable oil turns into margarine or how simple plastic products are made. These everyday transformations happen through addition reactions. In these reactions, molecules combine to form larger ones. From the hydrogenation of oils to the creation of polymers like plastic, addition reactions are all around us. Let’s explore the addition types, like …

Imagine two compounds with the same number of atoms, yet one smells like oranges while the other smells like lemons. This difference occurs because of isomerism—where molecules have identical molecular formulas but different structures. These structural changes can lead to distinct chemical and physical properties, just like the scents in these fruits. Isomers are divided …

Hydrocarbons are essential organic compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen. These molecules are the foundation for many fuels and industrial materials. Hydrocarbons can have different bonds between carbon atoms, changing their structure and properties. Some hydrocarbons have only single bonds, while others may have double or triple bonds. This variety allows them to be …