Chemistry

A collapsing bridge or a rusted car frame shows how corrosion silently damages the structures we depend on every day. Corrosion is a natural process where metals react with their environment, leading to material deterioration. It’s all around us, weakening buildings, vehicles, and pipelines—often unnoticed until failure occurs. This online chemistry textbook explains corrosion in …

Imagine holding a diamond and a pencil. Both contain carbon, yet their properties are worlds apart. This difference arises from allotropy, where elements exist in distinct forms in the same physical state. Allotropes like diamond and graphite showcase how atomic arrangements can drastically alter material characteristics. In this study guide, we’ll explore allotropy, its definition, …

Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reactions In organic chemistry, electron movement is central to reactions. Electrons travel from areas with many electrons, called nucleophiles, to areas with fewer electrons, called electrophiles. You often see this movement with curved arrows in reaction mechanisms, a technique called “arrow pushing.” These arrows visually show how electron pairs transfer during …

Introduction to Lanthanides and Actinides Lanthanides and Actinides, often called f-block elements, occupy the two rows at the bottom of the periodic table. These elements are unique due to their complex electron configurations, which lead to distinctive chemical and physical properties. Lanthanides Lanthanides are a series of 15 elements, from Lanthanum (La) to Lutetium (Lu). …

The History of Atomic Theories Ancient Ideas and Early Concepts The story of atomic theory starts with ancient philosophical questions about what matter is made of. Long before modern science, thinkers in Greece and India wondered about the basic parts of the universe. These early thoughts set the stage for what would later become a …

Introduction to Photochemistry Photochemistry is a branch of chemistry that examines how light can cause chemical changes. It covers both natural events and technological progress. Photochemistry involves studying how light starts chemical reactions, processes, and mechanisms. Its effects are evident in essential biological processes like photosynthesis and vision and in industrial technologies such as photolithography …

Introduction to Periodic Trends Understanding Periodic Trends in Chemistry Periodic trends are fundamental patterns observed in the periodic table that help predict the behavior and properties of elements. In the late 19th century, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev discovered these trends, later refined by the English physicist Henry Moseley. Mendeleev’s arrangement of elements based on …

How do you compare the mass of an atom when it’s too small to weigh directly? Scientists use the relative atomic mass, which compares an element’s mass to carbon-12. This method accurately describes atomic masses without units, helping you work with chemical equations and formulas. We will explore the concept of relative atomic mass, how …

Did you know glycerol, a sweet-tasting, water-attracting compound, is found in everything from food to cosmetics? With its three hydroxyl groups, this triol participates in key reactions like oxidation and esterification, making it a valuable substance in chemistry and industry. We will break down glycerol’s molecular structure, explain its chemical properties, and outline its reactions. …

When you boil water for tea or light a candle, heat moves between the system and its surroundings. This exchange is explained by enthalpy, a way to measure the total heat content of a system. Chemists use the enthalpy formula, $H = U + PV$, to calculate heat changes in reactions or phase transitions. In …