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Glutamine breaks down into glutamate in the liver urea cycle under catabolic conditions
Biology

Glutamine: Fuel for Cells, Muscles, and Immunity

During intense training or serious illness, your body quickly runs out of the amino acids it normally keeps in reserve. One of these is glutamine, stored mostly in your muscles and released when needed. Even immune cells and the gut depend on it when under stress. In this study guide, you’ll learn what glutamine is, …

Glycogen molecule diagram showing glucose chains and branching structure in liver
Biology

Glycogen: Structure, Glycogenesis and Glycogen Breakdown

A marathon runner collapses just before the finish line—not because of injury, but because their muscles have run out of fuel. That fuel is glycogen, a stored form of glucose. During intense activity, muscles break it down quickly to get the energy they need to keep working. This guide explains what glycogen is, how glycogenesis …

stem cells dividing on a petri dish with two daughter cells visible under microscope
Biology

Stem Cells: Types, Properties and Laboratory Culturing

A leukemia patient receives bone marrow from a donor. The new cells travel through the bloodstream, settle in the bones, and start making blood. These cells—stem cells—divide, replace, and repair tissue. They act without detailed instructions and respond to changes around them. Scientists can isolate them and influence what they become. This study guide explains …

Apoptosis showing a cell shrinking and breaking into apoptotic bodies for immune system removal
Biology

Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death in the Body

Every minute, your body removes cells that are damaged or no longer needed. This process happens quietly and without inflammation. After an infection, fever, or sunburn, the body eliminates affected cells in a controlled way. What looks like healing on the outside is driven by precise internal signals. This study guide explains apoptosis, or programmed …

Chromatin structure showing DNA wrapped around histones in a nucleosome
Biology

Chromatin: Euchromatin vs Heterochromatin

A single human cell holds about two meters of DNA, yet its nucleus measures only around 10 micrometers. This tight packing isn’t random—it’s managed by specific proteins that fold and organize the DNA into structured fibers. Without this organization, the DNA couldn’t fit or function properly inside the nucleus. This study guide explains how chromatin …